todaysdocument:

The first aircraft to fly the Atlantic (with stops!)

There were three of these NC-4’s which started across the Atlantic in May 1919 for Europe but only the NC-4 piloted by LCDR. A. C. Read completed the crossing. The flight began at Trepassey, New Foundland on May 16, 1919 and after 17 hours the NC-4 arrived at Horta, Azores. Ten days later it completed the flight arriving at Plymouth, England on May 26, 1919.

(via airmanisr)

reichsmarschall:

Specifications for the Gotha G.V Bomber

Crew: 3
Length: 40 ft 8 in
Wingspan: 77 ft 9 in
Height: 14 ft
Wing area: 963.6 ft²
Empty weight: 6,039 lb
Max takeoff weight: 8,745 lb
Powerplant: 2× Mercedes D.IVa
inline engine, 260 hp each

Performance
Maximum speed: 87 mph
Range: 522 miles
Service ceiling: 21,325 ft

Armament
2 or 3 × 7.92 mm (.312 in)
Parabellum MG14 machine guns

(via airmanisr)

distant-traveller:

Hydrogen clouds discovered between Andromeda and Triangulum galaxy

Score another point for the National Science Foundation’s Green Bank Telescope (GBT) at the National Radio Astronomy Observatory (NRAO) in Green Bank. They have opened our eyes – and ears – to previously undetected region of hydrogen gas clouds located in the area between the massive Andromeda and Triangulum galaxies. If researchers are correct, these dwarf galaxy-sized sectors of isolated gases may have originated from a huge store of heated, ionized gas… Gas which may be associated with elusive and invisible dark matter.

“We have known for some time that many seemingly empty stretches of the Universe contain vast but diffuse patches of hot, ionized hydrogen,” said Spencer Wolfe of West Virginia University in Morgantown. “Earlier observations of the area between M31 and M33 suggested the presence of colder, neutral hydrogen, but we couldn’t see any details to determine if it had a definitive structure or represented a new type of cosmic feature. Now, with high-resolution images from the GBT, we were able to detect discrete concentrations of neutral hydrogen emerging out of what was thought to be a mainly featureless field of gas.”

So how did astronomers detect the extremely faint signal which clued them to the presence of the gas pockets? Fortunately, our terrestrial radio telescopes are able to decipher the representative radio wavelength signals emitted by neutral atomic hydrogen. Even though it is commonplace in the Universe, it is still frail and not easy to observe. Researchers knew more than 10 years ago that these repositories of hydrogen might possibly exist in the empty space between M33 and M32, but the evidence was so slim that they couldn’t draw certain conclusions. They couldn’t “see” fine grained structure, nor could they positively identify where it came from and exactly what these accumulations meant. At best, their guess was it came from an interaction between the two galaxies and that gravitational pull formed a weak “bridge” between the two large galaxies.

Last year, the GBT observed the tell-tale fingerprint of hydrogen gas. It might be thin, but it is plentiful and it’s spread out between the galaxies. However, the observations didn’t stop there. More information was gathered and revealed the gas wasn’t just ethereal ribbons – but solid clumps. More than half of the gas was so conspicuously aggregated that they could even have passed themselves off as dwarf galaxies had they a population of stars. What’s more, the GBT also studied the proper motion of these gas pockets and found they were moving through space at roughly the same speed as the Andromeda and Triangulum galaxies.

“These observations suggest that they are independent entities and not the far-flung suburbs of either galaxy,” said Felix J. Lockman, an astronomer at the NRAO in Green Bank. “Their clustered orientation is equally compelling and may be the result of a filament of dark matter. The speculation is that a dark-matter filament, if it exists, could provide the gravitational scaffolding upon which clouds could condense from a surrounding field of hot gas.”

And where there is neutral hydrogen gas, there is fuel for new stars. Astronomers also recognize these new formations could eventually be drawn into M31 and M33, eliciting stellar creation. To add even more interest, these cold, dark regions which exist between galaxies contain a large amount of “unaccounted-for normal matter” – perhaps a clue to dark matter riddle and the reason behind the amount of hydrogen yet to revealed in universal structure.

Image credit: Bill Saxton, NRAO/AUI/NSF

(via improper)

sciencesoup:

Badass Scientist of the Week: Caroline Herschel

Caroline Herschel (1750-1848) grew up in Germany, as the daughter of a professional musician. Her father gave all his children a broad basic education in art, music, and science. His wife did not approve of educating her daughter, and when her father died, Caroline’s mother put her to work in the kitchen. Caroline had had several childhood diseases that had left her slightly disfigured, and her mother didn’t think she’d be good enough to marry, so she settled on a life of housework for her daughter.  Meanwhile, one of Caroline’s older brothers, William Herschel, had moved to England, where he was working as a composer and music director, and built telescopes in his spare time. When he found out that his mother had put his sister to work as a servant, he invited Caroline to move in with him in England. She did, and quickly got a successful career as a singer. While Caroline stayed with William, he made a discovery that would change both of their lives. Using a telescope he built himself, William Herschel discovered the planet Uranus in 1781. He was hired by King George III as “King’s Astronomer”, and quit his music career to devote all his time to science. Caroline helped him out, first by cleaning lenses and taking notes, but later with astronomical observations of her own.  She discovered a number of comets, including one that was named after her, and as reward for her work, the state paid Caroline a regular stipend, making her the very first woman to receive a salary for scientific work.

Guest article written by Eva, who writes about scientists/musicians on easternblot.net and on Tumblr as MusiSci

(via scientificillustration)

matthulksmash:

romythe:

mugenstyle:

eccecorinna:

wrathofprawn:

for those not in the know, night witches were russian lady bombers who bombed the shit out of german lines in WW2. Thing is though, they had the oldest, noisiest, crappest planes in the entire world. The engines used to conk out halfway through their missions, so they had to climb out on the wings mid flight to restart the props. the planes were also so noisy that to stop germans from hearing them combing and starting up their anti aircraft guns, they’d climb up to a certain height, coast down to german positions, drop their bombs, restart their engines in midair, and get the fuck out of dodge.

their leader flew over 200 missions and was never captured.

how the fuck is this not taught in every single history class ever

Holy fuck

They deserve their name

This is so fucking badass. I want a movie made about them NOW! It’ll be like A League of Their Own, but with planes. You could even hire Tom Hanks to say “There’s no crying in bombing Nazi’s!” with a Russian accent!

(via airmanisr)

omgthatdress:

Dress

Emile Pingat, 1885

The Philadelphia Museum of Art

(via beautifulcentury)

scinerds:

The Truth About Why Microbes Make You Sick

Between fevers, congestion and diarrhea, there are numerous ways that microbes can make us feel sick. But just how do microorganisms cause these symptoms?

At any given time, the microbes inside of our bodies outnumber our own cells by at least 10 to 1. In general, these tiny organisms are harmless — and often beneficial — to us, but some bacteria, viruses, fungi and protozoan parasites cause nasty diseases. For example, Escherichia coli can cause diarrhea, rhinovirus is behind the common cold and the fungus Cryptococcus neoformans can bring about a severe form of meningitis.

As you’ve probably guessed, there is no singular way that microbes make us sick — different biological mechanisms underlie different disease symptoms. So let’s go over some of the ways that microbes cause different symptoms. (Note: This is a general guide and is in no way meant to be a comprehensive description of every symptom you could possibly get.)

Immune Response

Many disease symptoms that befall us are actually caused by the immune system’s response to invading pathogenic microbes, rather than something the microbes are doing, specifically. Take, for instance, the common cold.

When the rhinovirus gets into your upper respiratory tract and invades epithelial cells (those that line the cavities in the body), it triggers inflammatory and immune responses. Certain cells release histamines, which dilate your blood vessels and increase their permeability, allowing white blood cells and some proteins to get to the infected tissues.

You often experience nasal congestion because your inflamed blood vessels are now so large that they stuff you up. But histamines also affect the amount of mucus your body produces, as well as its viscosity — this altered mucus production, along with the increased fluid leakage from now-permeable capillaries, can cause a runny nose.

Similar immune system reactions take place when you develop pneumonia, which is most often caused by bacteria and viruses (especially the bacterium Streptococcus pneumonia). Your body has pretty decent defenses to keep microbes out of the lungs, including nose hairs that filter air and certain reflexes (coughing and sneezing) that shoot microorganisms that enter your body back out. But sometimes that’s just not enough.

If bacteria get inside the alveoli (tiny air sacs in the lungs), they can invade the spaces between cells and even travel to adjacent alveoli. Your immune system responds by once again inflaming your blood vessels and making them permeable, allowing white blood cells and proteins to come to the rescue. But this permeability allows fluids to seep into the alveoli, taking up space that’s needed for the oxygen-carbon dioxide exchange. You become somewhat oxygen deprived and exhibit the shortness of breath that’s a common symptom of pneumonia. Moreover, your respirations increase as you try to bring more oxygen in and blow more carbon dioxide out.

Pneumonia and the common cold are also marked by fever, something that also arises because of our immune system. When white blood cells called macrophages encounter bacteria or viruses in your system, they produce cell-signaling proteins called interleukin-1 (IL-1). These proteins do two things: They call in helper T-cells and they bind to certain hypothalamus receptors in your brain, causing a rise in your body temperature, which is thought to help kill some pathogenic microbes. Substances that induce fevers, such as IL-1, are called pyrogens; some bacteria can induce fevers with pyrogens, too.

Endotoxins

Bacteria are divided into two major groups based on the structure of their cell wall: Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria. The outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria, such as E. coli and Salmonella, contains large molecules called lipopolysaccharides, which are made up of lipids and polysaccharide (sugar) chains.

These molecules are also called endotoxins (pdf), and they can act as pyrogens. When certain cells called phagocytes engulf the bacteria, lipopolysaccharides get released, which in turn causes macrophages to release IL-1. These proteins, as you know, cause fever.

But endotoxins can do a lot more than cause fever. For instance, if the bacteria Neisseria meningitides reaches the brain from the bloodstream, it can cause bacterial meningitis (Meningococcal meningitis). Endotoxins stimulate the synthesis of pro-inflammatory molecules called cytokines. So when the bacteria reaches the blood-brain barrier, a sharp inflammatory response ensues, causing cerebral blood vessels to leak protein and fluid, and swelling to develop in the membrane between the brain and skull.

These changes lead to an increase in intracranial pressure, resulting in the common meningitis symptoms of headache, stiff neck and sensitivity to bright lights. The pressure on nerves and decreased blood flow starves the brain of oxygen, leading to permanent brain damage and sometimes death.

The bacteria are more deadly if they stick to the bloodstream, where they can cause a blood infection called sepsis. This ability is partly due to the fact that N. meningitides’s endotoxin concentration is up to a 1,000 times greater than that other Gram-negative bacteria. The toxins target the heart and reduce its ability to pump blood, while also causing blood vessels throughout the body to rupture (more specifically, white blood vessels cause the breaks with the chemicals they release in response to the endotoxin).

As the vessels throughout the body leak, blood pressure drops and blood flow slows, leading to the failure of some major body organs and systems, including the kidneys, liver and central nervous system. The disease can manifest a number of conspicuous symptoms, such as fever, light-headedness, rapid heartbeat and skin rash (from the blood leaking under the skin).

Exotoxins

While only Gram-negative bacteria use endotoxins, both Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria can cause disease symptoms using exotoxins, a type of protein toxin. Exotoxins are grouped into categories based on their biologic effect on cells: Cytotoxins kill or damage cells, neurotoxins interfere with nerve impulses and enterotoxins affect the intestines.

Many well-known disease symptoms are traced back to exotoxins secreted by various bacteria. For example, the Gram-positive bacterium Streptococcus pyogenes releases three cytotoxins — one of its toxins damages blood capillaries, causing the infamous red rash of scarlet fever. Clostridium perfringens releases a toxin that disrupts normal cellular function and leads to the mass tissue necrosis commonly known as gangrene.

And when Corynebacterium diphtheriae is infected by a certain bacteriophage (bacteria-infecting virus), it can release the diphtheria toxin, which inhibits protein synthesis in cells and eventually causes their death. The cytotoxin can affect a wide range of tissues, and at high concentrations will produce diphtheria’s characteristic swollen neck, often called “bull neck.”

Bacterial neurotoxins are equally well known and scary. The uncontrollable spasms and convulsions of tetanus are all thanks to Clostridium tetani’s neurotoxin, which blocks the relaxation of skeletal muscles. Clostridium tetani’s relative, Clostridium botulinum, excretes a very potent neurotoxin that inhibits the release of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine — this inhibition prevents the transmission of nerve impulses to muscles, resulting in paralysis.

Now, let’s not forget about the wonderful enterotoxins that screw up our intestines. Vibrio cholerae’s cholera toxin (pdf) affects the ion transport and water balance in the intestines, causing epithelial cells to discharge large amounts of fluids and electrolytes. Some toxins produced by E. coli work in a similar way to the cholera toxin, while others are known to affect the intestinal blood vessels, causing bloody diarrhea.

And more!

Though we’ve covered quite a bit already, we’ve really only brushed the surface of how microbes bring about disease symptoms. Diarrhea, for example, can also come about when the single-celled parasite Giardia lamblia coats the intestines and prevents nutrient absorption. And the pain and frequent urination associated with urinary tract infections result from inflammation (pain from inflammation occurs only when the appropriate sensory nerve endings are in the inflamed area).

In addition, boils and other abscesses (such as those from a staph infection) can develop after bacteria populate a cut or break in the skin. Neutrophils, which are a type of white blood cells, rush to the infection, leading to inflammation. Eventually, pus forms from the mixture of old white blood cells, dead skin cells and bacteria.

And let’s not even get into viruses, which produce symptoms by triggering immune responses (like the rhinovirus), interfering with cells’ normal processes or destroying cells by exploding out of them.

The ways in which microbes produce disease symptoms are about as varied as the microbes themselves. Some microorganisms mess with our bodily functions, while others are satisfied with just destroying our cells. And, of course, there are all of those pathogens that turn our own immune system against us. Evil buggers.

(via house-of-gnar)

planeshots:

Monoplane Monday. Grahame-White’s Nieuport monoplane